Kant V. Mill Essay Example for Free

Kant V. Mill Essay Kantianism and Utilitarianism are two theories that attempt to answer the moral nature of human beings. Immanuel Kants moral system is based on a belief that reason is the final authority for morality. John Stuart Mills moral system is based on the theory known as utilitarianism, which is based upon utility, or doing what produces the greatest happiness. One of Kants lasting contributions to moral philosophy was his emphasis on the notion of respect for persons. He considers respect for persons (a. k. a the Kantian respect) to be the fundamental moral principle of ethical philosophy. His Kantianism premise is a deontological moral theory which claims that the right action in any given situation is determined by the categorical imperative, which he calls the Supreme Principle. This imperative is a command that applies to all rational beings independent of their desires. It is a command that reason tells us to follow no matter what (P. 31). Kant considers this an objective law of reason and because it applies to all of us, he calls it a universal practical law for all rational beings. The hypothetical imperative, on the contrary, is a conditional command, which we have reason to follow if (it) serve(s) some desire of ours (P. 31). For example, if you want X, then you will do Y, whereas with the categorical imperative, X has nothing to do with why you do Y. Kants categorical imperative is a tri-dynamic statement of philosophical thought. In order to determine the morality of the Hill case from Kants perspective, it is vital to understand the formulations that accompany the categorical imperative. Kant upheld systematic laws as the model of rational principles. A characteristic of systematic laws is that they are universal, such as the law that when heated, gas will expand. Kant thought that moral laws or principles must have universality to be rational. He derives the categorical imperative out of the notion that we should be willing to adopt those moral principle that can be universalized, that is, those which we can imagine that everyone could act upon or adopt as their principle. Thus, the first formulation of the categorical imperative is, Never act in such a way that I could not also will that my maxim should be a universal law (P.31). By maxim, he means the rule or principle on which you act. Consider the example Kant gives of giving a false promise. Making false promises is wrong and therefore could not be a universal law, because every rational being would not adopt this as a principle of action. In the Hill case, if Paul Hill kills the doctor than it is morally permissible for everyone else to kill someone they disagree with. Therefore, Hills actions were not justified, because killing cannot be a universal law. Kant also believes that human beings have unconditional worth. In his passage of, The Ultimate worth of Persons, he says: Now, I say, man and, in general, every rational being exists as an end in himself and not merely as a means to be arbitrarily used by this or that will. In all his actions, whether they are directed to himself or to other rational beings, he must always be regarded at the same time as an end. What we treat as having only a relative value as a means . . . are consequently called things. Rational beings, on the other hand, are called persons because their nature already marks them out as ends in themselves, that is, as something which ought not to be used merely as a means. Such a being is thus an object of respect and, so far, restricts all (arbitrary) choice. The practical imperative will therefore be as follows: Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own or in that of another, as an end and never as a means only (P. 32). According to Kant, as rational beings, we are self-directed beings. We experience ourselves and others as intrinsically valuable, as valuable as an end and not merely instrumentally valuable or valuable as a means to obtaining something. According to this second formulation of the categorical imperative, we should treat people with fundamental dignity and respect. For instance, it would be wrong to make false promises because we would be treating others as merely a means and not respecting them as persons with intrinsic value. In order to avoid misunderstanding Kant, it is crucial to distinguish between treating someone as a means to an end and treating them merely as a means to an end. In a complex network of social relationships, we use other people all the time as means to our ends without dehumanizing them. For instance, we use the services of certain people to deliver our newspapers, groceries, and mail. Students use professors as tools to become educated and earn degrees. By contrast, when you use someone merely as a means only, it is abusive and lacks respect for that person. The abuse of that person shows that you do not believe they have value apart from his or her immediate use. Kant believed that human beings occupy a special place in creation. Human beings have dignity, because they are rational agents, capable of making their own decisions and guiding their conduct by reason. Therefore, we have the duty of being good to all persons. In the Hill case, Paul cannot kill the doctor, because according to Kant, in virtue of being a person the doctor had rights, dignity, and intrinsic moral worth, as well as value. Hence, killing the doctor would be the wrong thing to do and through Kant that action is not morally justified, since the moral law demands that we treat others as ends in themselves, and never as mere means to other ends. In other words, you should always treat other rational beings (persons) as having absolute moral worth, or as the ultimate ends of action. ? This I will call the principle of autonomy of the will in contrast to all other principles which I accordingly count under heteronomy (P. 33). The moral will is the only truly autonomous will. Only by following the absolute dictates of reason (which is the source of will) do we arrive at the moral law, since will is a kind of reason, following the dictates of reason means following the dictates of will itself. Because we are subject only to the laws of our reason, he says, we are autonomous beings. And our autonomy gives us dignity and worth beyond all price. Due to our priceless dignity and worth, all persons are worthy of respect. An immoral will would not be autonomous since it would violate itself, the law it gives to itself. The immoral will is heteronomous. If you pursue ends that are not the ultimate ends (the absolute dignity of persons), your actions are ruled by something other than the true (rational) form of will. You might be ruled by passion, by desire, by the wish for happiness, etc. , but whatever it is, it is not self-rule by reason. Therefore, Paul cannot kill the doctor, because in doing so, he will be violating the inherent worth and dignity of persons. A rational being belongs to the realm of ends as a member when he gives universal laws in it while also himself subject to these laws? (P. 33) By this, I believe he means that Paul Hill cannot kill the doctor, because that will make him a hypocrite. He is strongly against abortion, which is the killing of the fetus who is a person from the moment of conception. Therefore, it is wrong for him to kill the doctor, because in doing so, he will be going against his own belief of taking life. Unlike Kant, John Stuart Mill believed in an ethical theory known as utilitarianism. Utilitarianism is another theory in which the main objective is to explain the nature of ethics and morality. There are many formulations to this theory. Utilitarianism is based upon utility, or doing what produces the greatest happiness. It states that the actions of a person should be based upon the greatest happiness principle. This principle states that ethical actions command the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. Mills main point is that one should guide his or her judgments by what will give more pleasure. He believes that a person should always seek to gain pleasure and reject pain. So, the formulation is that the morality of an act can be held upright if the consequence produces the greatest overall utility for everyone who may be directly or indirectly affected by the action. Utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of an act rather than on the intrinsic nature of the act or the motives of the agent. So Hills killing of the doctor is morally justified based on it bringing Hill pleasure and eliminating the pain he inflicted on the fetuses. Mill states that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others and that it would be absurd that while in estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity alone. Therefore, if Paul kills the doctor, he only took away two lives (quantity), which is less than those that would have been lost if the doctor would have continued performing abortions (quantity). However, Mill states that doing ? as you would be done by and ? lov(ing) your neighbor as yourself constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality. He also says that the thoughts of the most virtuous man need not on these occasions travel beyond the particular persons concerned, except so far as is necessary to assure himself that he is not violating the rights, this is the legitimate and authorized expectations, of anyone else. Both of these statements do not justify Hills actions because he should have loved the doctor and he should not have violated the doctors rights. Kantian moral theory and Utilitarianism both attempt to explain how one can go about acting ethically, however they differ in how they measure morality and in the use of rules. Kantianism says that an act is deemed moral if it is done for the sake of duty and if its maxim can be willed as a universal law. Kantianism can therefore be seen as a rational and logical theory in which decisions can be made. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, would only see the act as morally permissible if the consequences of that action produce maximum utility and happiness for all involved. Utilitarianism has no universal set of rules on to which morality is based. In assessing the two moral theories, I believe that Kantianism provides a more plausible account of ethics. Kantianism is more consistent of a theory and can be universally applied to all beings. It is more plausible because even if the consequences of performing an action are not necessarily the best, the agent is still obligated to perform the action because it is there duty to do so. Therefore, ethically and morally they are doing the right thing. In conclusion, this paper has discussed two main theories regarding the ethical behavior of human beings. Kantianism is a theory based on duties, maxims, willing and the categorical imperative. Also, it focuses on the motivation of actions, has clear and distinct set of universal rules, and is morally logical. On the other hand, Utilitarianism is based on the concept that we ought to do whatever produces the greatest overall utility and this will be the morally right action. Furthermore, it relies on the consequences of an action, has no set universal laws as each action is assessed on an individual basis, and morality is based on the results of the assessment. Because of these reasons, I believe that Kantianism is the more ethically plausible theory of the two.

Giotto Di Bondone: Art Style Analysis

Giotto Di Bondone: Art Style Analysis Giotto di Bondone (c. 1277-1337) was a Florentine painter who is widely celebrated as one of the most revolutionary and influential artists in the Trecento Italy. The 16th century art historian Giorgio Vasari praises Giottos gifted artistic talent, intellectual acumen, and pictorial precision: He became such an excellent imitator of Nature that he completely banished that crude Greek style and revived the modern and excellent art of painting. Giotto transformed the flat Byzantine approach by pursuing the naturalistic style that had been neglected by his artistic predecessors. Through close observation of nature, Giotto gave life to forms on a two-dimensional surface. Arguably, his most renowned work is the fresco cycle in Arena Chapel, Padua. Completed around 1305, the fresco paintings in the interior of Arena Chapel were commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni, who dedicated the chapel to the Virgin of Charity in order to repent his and his father Reginaldos sins of usury. In the thirty-ei ght scenes of the cycle, Giotto employed a dramatic narrative program. The episodes not only serve as a visual language showing the lives of the Virgin and Christ, but also reveal a sense of drama and display human interiority that demand the viewers intellectual and psycholocial engagment. How was Giotto able to convey drama and achieve communicative potential? This paper attempts to answer the question by analyzing his artistic style. Before embarking on our discussion of how Giottos artistic elements are dictated in Arena Chapel, we should first look at the organization of the fresco cycle. The thirty-eight episodes are arranged in three registers; the lives of Mary and her parents, Joachim and Anna, begin on the top level, the life and the mission of Christ are depicted on the middle level, and the Passion, Crucifixion, and Resurrection of Christ are on the lower level. The base level below has grisaille paintings alternating with the Virtues and Vices, which are painted in shades of gray in order to mimic marble and sculpture. The Last Judgment, perhaps the climax of the narrative cycle, fills up the majority of the west entrance wall. The barrel-vaulted nave of the chapel is executed in blue-the color that is echoed in all of the backgrounds of the panels, thus enhancing coherence. Each fresco section is surrounded has ornamental borders that not only function as dividing frames but also serve to heighten the realisitc quality of the painted scenes. Emotionalism in Giottos narrative is strengthened by his technique of averting some of his figures from the viewers eyes. He does this consciously by positioning his figures on their backs to the viewers or showing figures only in their profiles. His treatment of figures shows his interest in revealing stories and portraying emotions by concealing some forms. Lamentation in the lower register of the left wall from the chapels entrance shows the essence of his technique. The two mourners who are seen from their backs are not incidental in their positions but play an important role in communicating human drama. The mourning figure in the left corner is holding the head of Christ while the other is holding his right hand. Although we as viewers are not able to witness their facial expressions, we are able to feel the presence of their grief in absence. Through inexplicit images, Giotto is allowing the viewers to internally create an image and feel their silent mournings. Perhaps the rea son that the seated mourners are so simple and voluminous is that Giotto expects the viewers to add details through our own imagining. A similar technique can be seen in Giottos Kiss of Judas, where a relatively small sized figure in a hooded cloak is turning his back to the viewers. Right in front of the figure is Peter stretching his right hand to cut Malchus ear. Giotto included the anonymous figure to let the viewers contemplate and imagine the face of a tormentor who participates in the atrocity. In this way, onlookers can experience deeper emotional responses and relate to the biblical narrative in a much more empathetic way. Baxandall calls such experience a visualizing meditation and states that by omitting details, an artist complements the beholders interior vision. Giotto renders psychological drama through striking gestures and facial expressions on his figures. These elements are the most evident in Lamentation. The ten angels above the body of Christ are frantically flying and thrusting their bodies toward the viewers. They are moving with such great speed and energy that their robes seem to melt into the sky as they dart through the air. Their ghastly expressions of grief allow viewers to empathize. It is also crucial to note that none of them looks the same; each is individualistic in his or her poses and expressions. The angel on the lower right side is wrenching her hair with her two hands while another has her arms outstretched. The one in the middle is dashing toward the viewers with his mouth half open while another covers his face with his drapery. The motions, contortions, and foreshortening of their bodies are so powerfully depicted that their agony and despair are almost palpable. The movement of Saint John the Evangelist is also dramatically represented. He is standing up and bending his body to look down at Christ while throwing his arms back as if in utter shock and disbelief. The pain is apparent in his contorted face. His posture is evocative of the cross, which symbolizes the suffering of Christ. The gesture of Saint John the Evangelist not only heightens the psychological drama but also tells us that he has the room to do it. Thus, it creates an illusionistic space, depth and perspective that make the narrative panel much more true to life. Through a combination of different gestures and expressions, Giotto offers a range of sadness that provokes a powerful emotional response. Giottos narrative is much more dramatized by its sensory impact. Giotto is successful in not only communicating emotions visuallly but also is effective in appealing to the tactile and olfactory senses. In Giottos Meeting at the Golden Gate, viewers can feel the affinity through the touch of Joachim and Anna at the bridge in front of the Golden Gate. Anna is wrapping her hand around the neck of Joachim and her other hand is embracing his cheek while Joachim is drawing Anna toward him. Giotto positioned them so close to each other that their bodies and faces seem to merge in to one flesh. It is the touch that intensifies the old couples blissful emotion. By stimulating the tactile perception of the viewers, Giotto is able to communicate with the psychology of the viewers minds. As Gombrich writes, it is touch that enable[s] us to reconstitute the three-dimensional form in our minds. Giotto has also captured the drama of human interaction in Raising of Lazarus. Here, Giotto included tw o figures on the right who stand directly beside Lazarus. Both have covered their mouths and noses with their cloaks and one of them is even turning away from the scene as if the odor emanating from the decayed body of Lazarus was too sickening to tolerate. Their reactions to the smell add a depth of reality and signal the interaction among the characters portrayed. Through the presence of the two covered figures, Giotto has captured the feeling of unpleasantness. In fact, by appealing to the olfactory senses, Giotto allowed the viewers to become active participants rather than passive observers. Giottos series of fresco paintings in Arena Chapel are the culmination of his artistic skills. Various techniques are combined to communicate with the viewers. Through the concealment, gestures, expressions and tactility of his figures, Giotto provokes a strong emotional response from the viewers who are led to meditate upon his paintings. He has consciously employed his intelligence, ability and precision to suffuse his narrative scenes with human drama, interaction and emotions. Indeed, they are not merely well crafted mural paintings to be passively enjoyed but are combinations of powerful narratives to be actively interpreted. Ultimately, Giottos interest in human experience and naturalism has made the narrative cycle in Arena Chapel so profound and communicative.

Market Demand For Gasoline Economics Essay

Market Demand For Gasoline Economics Essay a) Analyze the market demand for the product or service and draw the demand curve. In the demand curve you are required to show different amounts of quantity demanded at different price with quantity in the horizontal axis and price on the vertical axis. Mention 3 factors that can affect the demand for this product or service. The product that I choose is gasoline. Gasoline is elastic goods which means, the quantity demanded for gasoline are respond greatly when the prices is changes. Market demand means by adding together the quantities demanded by all individuals at each price. The graph above has shown the market demand for the gasoline. MARKET DEMAND FOR GASOLINE Price of gasoline Lisa Mira Market demand 1 12 8 20 2 9 7 16 3 7 6 13 4 4 4 8 5 3 2 5 6 2 1 3 7 1 0 1 DEMAND CURVE FOR GASOLINE From this graph, we can see the relationship between the price and quantity is negative. At price $4, the quantity demanded for gasoline is 8 units. When the price increasing to $5, the quantity demanded has decreasing to 5 units. And when the price has gone down to $3, the quantity demanded for gasoline has increasing to 13 units. We have 3 factors that can affect the demand for gasoline. Firstly is the average income of consumers. When people income rises, consumers tend to purchase more automobile. So, the demand for gasoline also will be increases. Secondly is the size of market. When the number of population is high, people tend to use more gasoline for their transportation. Example like, in Malaysia, we have 2 million people. So people tend to use 25 times more gasoline than Singapore only has 1 million people. Lastly is price of related goods. Availability of related goods or complementary goods such as natural gas will affect the demand for gasoline also. b) Analyze the market supply for the product or service and draw the demand curve. In the supply curve, you are required to show the quantity demanded at different prices. You are also required to name 3 factors of production for the good or service you choose. Market supply is the sum of all individual supplies at each possible price. Gasoline is elastic good for supplier. The graph above has shown the market supply for the gasoline. MARKET SUPPLY FOR GASOLINE Price of gasoline Diana Catherine Market supply 1 0 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 5 4 4 4 8 5 6 7 13 6 7 10 17 7 9 11 20 SUPPLY CURVE FOR GASOLINE The 3 factor of production for gasoline is: Land. It includes the soil, rivers,  Ã‚   lakes, ocean, mountain, forest, minerals and resource.   Capital. Capital goods are classified into four. Firstly is fixed capital, secondly, circulating capital, thirdly is free capital, and lastly is specialized capital. Labor is an exertion of physical, muscular strength, ability and mental efforts of individual. What is equilibrium? Find the equilibrium price and quantity of the product or service and draw its graph. You need to explain what happens when there is a surplus for this product or service and show it in a separate graph. Equilibrium refers to a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded. At that equilibrium, there is no tendency for the price to rice or fall. Equilibrium price means the price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demanded. The equilibrium price is also called the market-clearing price. On a graph, it is the price at which the supply and demand curves intersect. Equilibrium quantity means the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium price. On a graph it is the quantity at which the supply and demand curves intersect. EQUILIBRIUM Price of gasoline ($) Quantity of demanded Quantity of supplied 1 20 1 2 16 3 3 13 5 4 8 8 5 5 13 6 3 17 7 1 20 THE EQUILIBRIUM OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND FOR GASOLINE GRAPH FOR SURPLUS Surplus occurs when the price more than the equilibrium price and the quantity supplied more than the quantity demanded. There is excess supply or a surplus. Suppliers will lower the price to increase sales, thereby moving toward equilibrium. Refer to the graph above, we can see the surplus occurs when the price increase to $6. At $6, the quantity of supplier is 17 and the quantity demanded is 3. Thats means, at the price, the suppliers want to sell more than demanders want to buy. When price of gasoline at $4 and the quantity supplier is 8 units, we call it equilibrium because at this price, the quantity of demand and quantity of suppliers is equal. When surplus occurs, we will loss in revenue and price will gradually falls to reach a state of equilibrium as suppliers will lower their price. d) Using the secondary data, show the changes of the demand and supply of these goods and service in the past and explain the result in word and then draw a graph. The price of gasoline in year 1973 has decrease to 1.5 dollars per gallon, compare to the previous year; in 1967 the price is 1.8 dollars per gallon. Then, in year 1975, the price has goes up to 2 dollar per gallon. That time we call is the first oil shock occurs. And then, the second oil shock occurs in 1983 with the price increases to 2.8 dollars per gallon. In 1985, the price of gasoline has decrease to 1.4 dollars per gallon and then its decrease the price to 2 dollar gain in 1990 when the first gulf war occurs. Lastly, in 2004, when the war in Iraq occurs, they have not many changes to the price of gasoline. The graph above has show the fluctuated price of gasoline. Refers to the graph, we can see the demand of gasoline has decreases when the price has increase because gasoline is an elastic goods. People can use gas when the price of gasoline increases. The supplier also increases when the price of gasoline is increases. GRAPH FOR GASOLINE 2) Distinguish the difference between normal good and inferior good? Give 3 examples for each. Normal good is a quantity demanded for a particular good or service as a result of changes in the given level of income. A normal good is one that experiences an increase in demand as the real income of an individual or economy increase. To define a normal good is by calculating its income of demand. If this Coe-efficient is positive and lower than one, the good is considered to be a normal good. An example of normal good is: luxury cars mobile phone Television. Inferior goods means a type of good for which demand decline as the level of income or real GDP in the economy increases. This occurs when a good has more costly substitutes that see an increase in demand as the societys economy improves. An inferior good is the opposite of a normal good, which experience an increase in demand along with increases in the income level. An example of an inferior good is: public transportation hamburger Secondhand television. In your opinion, is diamond a normal good or an inferior good? Justify your answer. Diamond is a normal good because when the income raises, the demand for diamond also rises and vice versa. Diamond is such one of the luxuries good. Only some people who have a high income are afford to purchase it. Beside that, when the price of diamond is fall, the demand for the diamond will be increases. Thats means; people are willing to buy a diamond when the price is going down. Thats what we call a normal good. c) Product x and y are substitutes and product y is an inferior product. What is the effect of an increase in the income on the demand of product y? How the change in the demand of product y affects the demand for product x? Draw the diagram for both product x and y and show the changes of demand curves in them. Product x and y are substitutes and product y is an inferior product. When the income increases, the demand for product y will be decrease because when the consumer has a high income, the demand also increases. They prefer to choose a normal good compare to the inferior good. Lets say, when the incomes are normal, consumers prefer to eat a hamburger, but when their income increases, they prefer to go to restaurant to eat a healthy food. Thats means, the demand for hamburgers are decreases when the income rises. When the demand of product y is decreases, the demand for product x will be increases because consumer are consume to buy a product x much more than product y. It can show at the graph below: Product x Product y 3) The table below illustrates how the total utility that Ahmed derives from eating ice-cream changes as he consumes more and more ice cream each day. Fill in the table above. Ice-cream Total utility Marginal utility 0 0 0 1 12 12 2 22 10 3 28 6 4 32 4 5 34 2 b) Draw a diagram and explain the law of diminishing marginal utility for Ahmed. Law of diminishing marginal utility for Ahmed i) Total utility ii) Marginal utility The law of diminishing marginal utility means, as the amount of a good increases, the marginal utility of that good tends to diminish. When we consume more and more good, our total utility will grow at a slower and slower rate. Growth in total utility slows because our marginal utility diminishes as more of the good is consumed. For Ahmed, at one consumption of ice-cream, the total utility is 12 and the marginal utility or their satisfaction is 12, but as he consume 2 or more ice-cream, the marginal utility has falls. By the law of diminishing marginal utility, the marginal utility falls with increasing levels of consumption. 4) Differentiate market economy, command economy, and mix economy. Market economy is a system of allocating resource based only on the interaction of market forces, such as supply and demand. A true market economy is free of governmental influence, collusion and other external interference. We also call it a laissez faire style. The individuals and private sector firms make major decision about production and consumption. Thats a private ownership of resources. The price and market systems are used to coordinate and direct economy activity. Consumers would determine and influence the producers decisions to produce goods. In this form of economic organization, firms, motivated by the desire to maximize profit, buy inputs and produce and sells output. Household, armed with their factor incomes, go to markets and determines the demand for commodities. The interaction of firms supply and household demand then determines the prices and quantities of goods. Command economy is an economy where supply and price are regulated by the government rather than market forces. Government planners decide which goods and services they want produced and how they are distributed. Sometimes we call it centrally planned economy. That is a public ownership of all recourse. Decision making is through central economic planning. Everything is controlled by the government. Mixed economy is an economy system in which both the private enterprise and a degree of state monopoly coexist. All modern economics are mixed where means of production are shared between the private and public sector. We also called it a dual economy system. Mixed economy is a dominant form of economic organization in noncommunist countries. Mixed economies rely primarily on the price system for their economic organization but use a variety of government interventions such as taxes, spending and regulation to handle macroeconomic instability and market failures. b) Do you agree with the contention that mixed economy is the best of all the three system? Yes, I agree that mixed economy is the best of all the three system because in a mixed type economy, both, the private ownership as well as the state takes part in the means of production, distribution and other type of economic activities. The mixed economy allows private participation in the field of production in an environment of competition with an objective of attaining profit. On the contrary following to the socialism features it includes public ownership in production for maximizing social welfare. Simply in such type of economy there is the presence of private economic freedom with centralized planning with a common goal of avoiding the problems associated with both capitalism as well as socialism. In this system, the freedom in the economic activities are influenced by the government regulation and licensing policies.

The Greek hero vs. The Anglo-Saxon hero :: Comparison Compare Contrast Essays

The Greek hero vs. The Anglo-Saxon hero The hero stands as an archetype of who we should be and who we wish to be. However, the hero has inherent flaws which we do not wish to strive towards. In literature, these flaws are not used as examples of what we should be but rather as examples of what not to be. This is especially dominant in the Greek hero. While the Greek hero follows his fate, making serious mistakes and having a fairly simple life, the Anglo-Saxon "super" hero tries, and may succeed, to change his fate, while dealing with a fairly complex life. The Greek hero is strong and mighty while his wit and intelligence are highly valued. In the Greek tragedy, the hero struggles to avoid many flaws. Among these flaws are ambition, foolishness, stubbornness, and hubris-the excessive component of pride. He must overcome his predestined fate-a task which is impossible. From the beginning of the tale, it is already clear that the hero will ultimately fail with the only way out being death. In Oedipus, the hero is already c onfronted with a load of information about his family and gouges his eyes out. At this point, when he tries to outwit his fate he has already lost and is sentenced to death. The Anglo-Saxon hero must also deal with his "fate" but tries, and usually succeeds, to change it. While the Greek hero battles his fate with his excessive pride and intelligence, the Anglo-Saxon hero tries to eliminate his doom by force. The Anglo-Saxon hero is considered a barbarian of sorts due to his sometimes unethical and immoral views and courses of action. At the end, the Anglo-Saxon succeeds in altering his fate though. The Greek hero is so normal, that the reader can relate to him. He is usually a "common" human being with no extraordinary life. His story seems believable, even possible. We would have no hard time imagining the hero's conflict as being ours. As in the case with Oedipus, we can understand how he feels it would be possible for his circumstances to be applied to our lives. Although the details may seem a little farfetched it is not impossible that there is some truth to the story. On the other hand, the Anglo-Saxon hero, being super-human, is especially difficult to relate to. The Anglo-Saxon may reach the same pedestal as a God.

what is rap :: essays research papers

Many schools of history begin the story of rap music as a mutation of southern soap-box blues. Using the basics of the blues style of music, rap is all about emotions and the personal interpretation of reality by the author of the song. Rap, then, should be considered as a definition essay of sort. What is rap? Rap music is an American minority artist creation. Unfortunately, rap music is not perceived by many Americans as an art form, but as a fad which they hope will soon fade away, one can trace the history of rap back to the West African professional singers/storytellers known as Griots. Rap is spoken word, rap is slang from the street corners of your brain. Rap is smoking herb, rappers recite truthful social bombs, preachers even rap it just comes out in a religious form. Rap is the heart and soul of citizens in the tall cold walls of property. Rap is the story of the time when people lost all control. Rap is regional, descriptive, and ethnic. Rap is regional, much like dialects. Different parts of the nation live in different manners. Every regional has its own story to tell, so in rap a song should tell the story of its region. Whenever a group of people is locked within the margins of American social discourse, that community may find it necessary to scream or chant or rap to be heard. It should come as no surprise, then, that alienation serves to be the medium for counter-cultural movements. Discontentment is only the beginning. Each region should have its on flare, its on personality. Genuine rap informs its listeners about the current social climate. For example, if the mayor of a city has recently been convicted for misusing public funds, it would surely be in a rap song. If a guy went into a courtroom and shot the judge, bailiff, and the court reporter it would most likely be in a rap song. Unlike most of the lyrics out on the market today, genuine rap contains meaning and it sends a message to the listeners. Although those messages might have bad words, and show images of things that are socially wrong, that’s actually what is going on where they are from. Their music represents their area and their people, and it is no different from a farmer singing about his cows and chickens out in farmland.

Reinforcement and Employees Essay

Q3. What tools does Walmart use to motivate employees? How might a lack of motivation affect associates and how should managers respond? Give me a W! Give me an A! Give me an L! Give me a squiggly! Give me an M! Give an A! Give me an R! Give me a T! What’s that spell? Walmart! Whose Walmart is it? It’s my Walmart ! Who’s number one? The customer! Always! The good times continue at Walmart, and so do hard work and achievement. For many employees, seeing peers rewarded for a job well done proves highly motivational. Executives at Walmart refer to the company as one big family. There are no grunts or gophers –no employee, no matter how new, is thought of as low person on the totem. According to the company’s â€Å"open door† policy, all associates are encouraged to speak freely, share concerns, and express ideas for improving daily operations. In return, they can expect managers to treat all discussions fairly with an open mind. The policy is ri ght out of Walton’s playbook. â€Å"Listen to your associates,† Walton urged. â€Å"They’re the best idea generators.† The founder’s wisdom is routinely reaffirmed through the oft-repeated quote that â€Å"nothing constructive happens in Bentonville† – a reference to Walton headquarters. In Walton’s grass – roots ethic, local employees are the ones most likely to produce fresh ideas. One significant way managers can meet higher motivational needs is to shift power down from the top of organization and share it with employees to enable them to achieve goals. Empowerment is power sharing, the delegation of power or authority to subordinates in an organization. Increasing employee motivation for task accomplishment because people improve their own effectiveness, choosing how to do a task and using their creativity. Empowerment is one way managers promote self- reinforcement and self- efficacy, as defined in the discussion of social learning. Empowering employees involves giving them four elements that enable them to act more freely accomplish their jobs: information knowledge, power, and rewards. First of all, employees receive information about company performance. In companies where employees are fully empowered, all employees have access to all financial and operational information. Secondly, employees have knowledge and skills to contribute to company goals. Companies use training programs and other development tools to help people acquire the knowledge and skills they need to contribute to organizational performance. The third motivation is employees have the power to make substantive decision. Empowered employees have the authority to directly influence work procedures and organizational performance, such as through quality circles or self- directed work teams. And last but not least, employees are rewarded based on company performance. Organizations that empower workers often reward them based on the results shown in the company’s bottom line. Organizations may also use other motivational compensation programs described in Exhibit 16.8 to tie employee efforts to company performance. Exhibit 16.8 Many of today’s organizations are implementing empowerment programs, but they are empowering workers to varying degrees. At some companies, empowerment means encouraging workers’ idea while managers retain final authority for decisions; at others it means giving employees almost complete freedom and power to make decisions and exercise initiative and imagination. Current methods of empowerment fall along a continuum, as illustrated in exhibit 16.9 . The continuum runs from situation in which front- line workers have almost no discretion, such as on a traditional assembly line, to full empowerment, where workers even participate in formulating organizational strategy. Exhibit 16.9 Perhaps the most important things managers can do to enhance organizational communication and dialogue can encourage people to communicate honestly with one another. Subordinates will feel free to transmit negative as well as positive message to managers without fear of retribution. Efforts to develop interpersonal skills among employees can also foster openness, honesty, and trust. Second, managers should develop and use formal communication channels in all direction. Scandinavian Designs uses two newsletters to reach employees. Dana Holding Corporation developed the â€Å"Here a Thought† board- called a HAT rack- to get ideas and feedback from workers. Other techniques include direct mail, bulletin boards, blogs, and employee surveys. Third, managers should encourage the use of multiple channels including both formal and informal communications. Multiple communication channels include written directives, face- to- face discussions, and the grapevine. For example, managers at GM’s Packard Electric plant use multimedia, including a monthly newspaper, frequent meeting of employees’ teams and an electronic news display in the cafeteria. Sending messages through multiple channels increases the likelihood that they will be properly received. Fourth, the structure should fit communication needs. An organization can be designed to use teams, task forces, project managers, or matrix structure as needed to facilitate the horizontal flow of information for coordination and problem solving. Structure should also reflect information need. When team or department task are difficult, a decentralized structure should be implemented to encourage discussion and participation. Empowerment is the process of distributing decision-making power throughout an organization. It is a process which enables employees to set personal work goals, make minor decisions and to solve conflicts by using their personal authority. Team Bonuses, in situations in which employees should cooperate with each other and isolating employee performance is more difficult, companies are increasingly resorting to tying employee pay to team performance. For example, in 2007, Wal-Mart gave bonuses to around 80% of their associates based on store performance. If empl oyees have a reasonable ability to influence their team’s performance level, these programs may be effective. One way Wal-Mart facilitates respect for an individual is through an open-door policy that allows employees of all levels to communicate with managers in higher levels of the company. This open-door policy is also a way of keeping unions from forming in the company. The philosophy is that when employees have avenues for expressing their complaints and problems, there will be no reason to have union representatives (Cray, 2000; Slater, 2003). However, people may question how effective this policy is, because employees still attempt to form unions. Walton also believed in the importance of having a clear flow of communication with his workers, claiming that the more information they received the harder they would work for him. â€Å"The more they know, the more they’ll understand,† he said. â€Å"The more they understand, the more they’ll care. Once they care, there’s no stopping them.† To Walton, the free flow of information between him and his worke rs demonstrated the trust and respect he had for them. Without that trust, Walton felt he could not succeed. â€Å"Information is power, and the gain you get from empowering your associates more than offsets the risk of informing your competitor,† he said. For Walton, the bottom line was to appreciate his workers and to make them feel valued. He knew that a paycheck and stock options alone would not guarantee loyalty or hard work. Instead, he realized the importance of making sure his workers knew they were appreciated. â€Å"Nothing else can quite substitute for a few well-chosen, well-timed, sincere words of praise,† he said. â€Å"They’re absolutely free – and worth a fortune.† By having motivated and loyal employees, Walton could then use them as his secret weapon. â€Å"The folks on the front lines – the ones who actually talk to the customer – are the only ones who really know what’s going on out there,† he said. By listening to his workers and their ideas, Walton could stay on top of his game; â€Å"This really is what total quality is about.† Listen to everyone in your practice/team. Obviously your team is a lot smaller than Wal-Mart, but Sam’s tactic of figu ring out ways to get â€Å"front line† people talking holds true for advisors. You can gain a lot of insight into your clients, and it will help strengthen relationships with support personnel. And yes, listen to your clients too. continuous communication is the most important thing to remember. Change usually causes fear about different things. Communication must be very open, honest and encouraging. It also has to cover all the parties involved in the change. Happy employees mean happy customers. Walton admitted that initially he was so stingy and did not give good pay to his employees. But eventually he realized that he should give a larger payment to his employees because they are considered as â€Å"business partners†. According to Walton, who treated the way management is the same business partner in a way that applied to the consumer. If the business partner treats their customers well then the consumer will come again and again therein lies the advantage and business success. Walton also often visited his shop and asked for their opinions, especially employees who are on the front lines, those who actually faced and talking with customers, as people who know the real situation on the ground. Management’s number one goal with their employees is to make working at Wal-Mart fun and rewarding. They even have their own cheer to boost associates morale and organizational spirit (Wal-Mart, 2008). â€Å"Who’s Wal-Mart? It is my Wal-Mart† (Wal-Mart, 2008). This is the type of leadership styles that all organizations need to use. This style makes employees want to come to work everyday and they feel secure knowing that they are working for a great organization. Wal-Mart is like one big family and like to make their associates feel like they are an important part of keeping the doors open for everyone. If Walmart this organization are lack of motivation it’ll affects associates also called employees. Lack of motivation equates to less work being accomplished. Productivity does not disappear; it is usually transferred to aspects not related to the organization’s work. Things like personal conversations, Internet surfing or taking longer lunches cost the organization time and money. Reduced productivity can be detrimental to an organization’s performance and future success. Low employee motivation could be due to decreased success of the organization, negative effects from the economy or drastic changes or uncertainty within the organization. No matter what the cause, having the reputation of having an unpleasant work environment due to low employee motivation will ultimately impact how existing and potential clients or partners view working with an organization. A reputation can precede an organization and dictate its future in the industry. The reinforcement approach employee motivation sidesteps the issue of employee needs and thinking processes described in the content and process theories. Reinforcement theory simply looks at the relationship between behavior and its consequences. It focuses on changing or modifying employees’ on –the-job behavior through the appropriate use of immediate rewards and punishments. Behavior modification is the name given to the set of techniques by which reinforcement theory is used to modify human behavior. The basic assumption underlying behavior modification is the law of effect, which states that behavior that is positively reinforced tends to be repeated, and behavior that is not reinforced tends not to be repeated. Reinforcement is defined as anything that causes a certain behavior to be repeated or inhibited. The four reinforcement tools are positive reinforcement, avoidance learning, punishment, and extinction, as summarized in exhibit16.6 Positive reinforcement is the administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence following a desired behavior, such as praise for an employee who arrives on time or does a little extra work. Research shows that positive reinforcement does help to improve performance. Moreover, nonfinancial reinforcement such as positive feedback, social recognition, and attention are just as effective as financial incentives. One study of employees at fast- food drive- thru windows, for example, found that performance feedback and supervisor recognition had a significant effect on increasing the incidence of â€Å"up- selling† or asking customers to increase their order. Montage Hotels &resorts, known for its culture of gracious yet humble service, uses a variety of employee recognition programs to positively reinforce employees for providing exceptional service. CEO Alan J. Fuerstman says â€Å"it’s simple psychology. People commit more acts of kindness when they are appreciated f or them.† Avoidance learning is the removal of an unpleasant consequence once a behavior is improved, theory encouraging and strengthening the desired behavior. Avoidance learning is sometimes called negative reinforcement. The idea is that people will change a specific behavior to avoid the undesired result that behavior provokes. As a simple example, a supervisor who constantly reminds or nags an employee who is goofing off on the factory floor and stops the nagging when the employee stops goofing off is applying avoidance learning. Punishment is the imposition of unpleasant outcomes on an employee. Punishment typically occurs following undesirable behavior. For example, a supervisor may berate an employee for performing a task incorrectly. The supervisor expects that the negative outcome will serve as a punishment and reduce the likelihood of the behavior recurring. The use of punishment in organization is controversial and often criticized because it fails to indicate the correct behavior. However, almost all managers report that they find it necessary to occasionally impose forms of punishment ranging from verbal reprimands to employee suspensions or firings. Extinction is the withholding of a positive reward. Whereas with punishment, the supervisor imposes an unpleasant outcome such as a reprimand, extinction involves withholding praise or other positive outcomes. With extinction, undesirable behavior is essentially ignored. The idea is that behavior that is not positively reinforced will gradually disappear A New York Times reporter wrote a humorous article about how she learned to stop nagging and instead use reinforcement theory to shape her husband’s behavior after studying how professionals train animals. When her husband did something she liked such as throw a dirty shirt in the hamper, she would use positive reinforcement, thanking him or giving him a hug and a kiss. Undesirable behaviors, such as throwing dirty clothes on the floor, on the other hand, were simply ignored, applying the principle of extinction. Reward and punishment motivational practices based on the reinforcement theory dominate organizations. According to the Society for Human Resource Management, 84 percent of all companies in the United States offer some type of monetary or non- monetary reward system, and 69 percent offer incentive pay, such as bonuses, bases on an employee’s performance. However, in other studies, more than 80 percent of employers with incentive programs have reported that their programs are only somewhat successful or working at all. Despite the testimonies of organizations that enjoy successful incentive programs, criticism of these â€Å"carrot- and- stick† methods is growing, as discussed in the Manager’s Shoptalk. If rewards and motivation are failed to fulfill the employees the manager of Walmart should apply some positive reinforcement in order to safe the situation. Positive reinforcement is the practice of rewarding desirable employee behavior in order to strengthen that behavior. For example, when you praise an employee for doing a good job, you increase the likelihood of him/her doing that job very well again. Positive reinforcement both shapes behavior and enhances an employee’s self-image. Recognizing and rewarding desirable employee behavior is the essential key to motivating employees to work more productively. This method will reap many benefits, first it clearly defines and communicates expected behaviors and strengthens the connection between high performance and rewards. It reinforces an employee’s behavior immediately after learning a new technique and promotes quick, thorough learning. It motivates effective workers to continue to do good work. Lack of reinforcement leads to job dissatisfaction. It increases productivity by rewarding workers who conserve time and materials. Employees who are rewarded after they successfully perform feel self-confident and become eager to learn new techniques, take advanced training, and accept more re sponsibility. Rewarding employees who suggest improved work procedures will produce more innovation – if you create a relaxed work environment, reward new ideas and tolerate innovative failures. Employees who receive recognition for their achievements are more enthusiastic about their work, more cooperative, and more open to change. Besides that, when you show appreciation and reward employees for good work, you’ll be able to increase their job commitment and organizational loyalty. In conclusion, giving positive reinforcement does not mean that what is done incorrectly by an employee is to be ignored. Instead, it means to recognize what portion of the work was done correctly first, then follow-up with what can be done better the next time and why the performance or work result was not quite what was expected. If this means the manager must take some of the blame for not giving detailed instructions for the desired behavior or result, they should do so in an apologetic manner and then proceed to explain how the manager personally will try to do better. This is an excellent time for the manager to let the employee know they still have faith in them but need their help and cooperation by their asking questions if the manager’s instructions are not clear. This allows both the employee and manager to get better at communication, which results in improved task completion. Remember mangers need to give positive results first, then follow-up with what improvements are needed, apologize if necessary, and then reinforce what was done right again. When working the improvement or follow-up statement do not use the word â€Å"but† as this word often negates anything said before it and the employee may stop listening as they know a negative is coming next.

Compare and Contrast Karl Marx’s and Walt Rostow’s Theories

This essay attempts to compare and contrast Karl Marx’s and Walt Rostow’s theories of stages of social and economic development. A theory is an interconnected, logical system of concepts that provides a framework for organising and understanding observations. The function of a theory is to allow us to understand and predict the behaviour of some aspect of the world (Miller, 1993). However, each theory of development presents a different view of how and why of society growth and change. Each theory is useful though no single theory explains everything.While Karl Marx had a different notion in regard to the stages of social and economic development it can also be noted that Rostow had a different perception on the theory. The Marxian stage theory tradition is intimately linked to turning points in the historical process of capital accumulation. These turning points mark the inauguration of a period of relatively unproblematic reproduction of capitalist social relations or , symmetrically, the beginning of a period of stagnation and crisis. Traditional/Primitive Communism: This stage was characterized by societies without a class.Most people in these societies were subsistence farmers and concentrated on their own individual survival. Marx and Friedrich (1983), explain that, the productive forces were hardly developed at all and property was held in common in this stage. During this period, land was vast and population was small. People lived as individuals and tried to fend for themselves regardless of whom or what was around them. A traditional tribal structure was the order of the day while the Means of Production was in a pre or early stage.The replacement of this stage of production came about by the gradual increase in population, growth of wants and extension of external relations such as war and trade (Marx & Friedrich, 1983). According to Marx (1993), the growing independence of the individual within the community meant that it was not possib le for the traditional stage to survive. Ancient Stage: in the ancient mode of production classes were prevalent. The ruling class controlled the surplus and, therefore, controlled the lower class (Marx, 1993).In this stage, slavery was the most predominant materialisation of class struggle as the coercion and restraint  of the lower class was very direct (Laibman, 2006). The ruling class physically owned the lower class and slaves had little to no motivation to advance the productive forces by increasing their labour productivity. The ancient stage was economically supported by agriculture and the discovery of trade. During this stage there were the introduction of a new technology which mainly involved the use of animals (horses, cows and ox) and the development of two ways farming. This mode of production can be identified within Ancient Greek and Roman Empires.In Africa, this act could be identified with the Great Ghanaian Empire and the Great Egyptian Kingdom (time of the pha raohs). Feudalism: Feudalism brought about the collapse of most cultures and the rise of Capitalism, Barbarism and other socio-economic characteristics which emerged as a result of wealth amassing. This wealth amassing was in the form of property. The feudalism age was characterised by the possession of land. Furthermore, there was the possession of human beings as peasants who worked on these lands (Marx & Friedrich, 1983).Feudalism is the age that has shaped Economic Development to this day. Therefore, it can be clearly seen that over generations these classes maintain their status and serve as leaders of the land, thereby, controlling the land which is owned by the peasants. Bourgeois: The development of governments and education were the driving force of the economy and resulted in an emergence of Capitalism which took its pedigrees from the division of labour created in a means to meet rising demands and improve production.Capitalism is the current stage of production. Accordin g to Shimp (2009), bourgeois stage is dominated by private property and markets. Businesses own machines, buildings and tools which are used to produce different items that can be sold in markets to make a profit. According to Marx (1993), capitalism increasingly divides people into two groups. In a capitalist economic system, the means of production (anything used to produce goods, like factories, machines, and land) are privately owned by the bourgeoisie, or capitalist class.The capitalist lower class is coerced into working for the capitalist ruling class. Even though members of the lower class have their choice of which employers to sell their labour to, the fact remains that they sell their labour to survive (Marx & Friedrich, 1983). The Rostovian take-off model (also called â€Å"Rostow's Stages of Growth†) is one of the major historical models of economic growth. The model postulates that economic modernization occurs in five basic stages, of varying length.Traditional society, Preconditions for take-off, Take-off, Drive to maturity, Age of High mass consumption. Rostow asserts that countries go through each of these stages fairly linearly, and set out a number of conditions that were likely to occur in investment, consumption and social trends at each state. Traditional society is one whose structure is developed within limited production functions, based on Pre-Newtonian science and technology, and on Pre-Newtonian attitudes towards the physical world (Chang, 2003).This stage is characterized by subsistence agriculture or hunting & gathering; almost wholly a â€Å"primary† sector economy limited technology; a static or ‘rigid' society: lack of class or individual economic mobility, with stability prioritized and change seen negatively.Pre-conditions to â€Å"take-off† External demand for raw materials initiates economic change; development of more productive, commercial agriculture & cash crops not consumed by producers and/ or largely exported widespread and enhanced investment in changes to the physical environment to expand production (i.  e. irrigation, canals, ports) increasing spread of technology & advances in existing technologies changing social structure, with previous social equilibrium now in flux individual social mobility begins development of national identity and shared economic interests Take off – The take-off is the interval when the old blocks and resistances to steady growth are finally overcome.The forces making for economic progress, which yielded limited bursts and enclaves of modern activity, expand and come to dominate the society. Growth becomes its normal condition. Compound interest becomes built, as it were, into its habits and institutional structure (Chang, 2003, p. 7). Manufacturing begins to rationalize and scale increases in a few leading industries, as goods are made both for export and domestic consumption the â€Å"secondary† (goods-producing) sector expands and ratio of secondary vs. primary sectors in the economy shifts quickly towards secondary textiles & apparel are usually the first â€Å"take-off† industry, as happened in Great Britain's classic â€Å"Industrial Revolution† Drive to maturity is that stage when a society has effectively applied the range of (then) modern technology to the bulk of its resources (Chang, 2003, p. 59).Diversification of the industrial base; multiple industries expand & new  ones take root quickly manufacturing shifts from investment-driven (capital goods) towards consumer durables & domestic consumption rapid development of transportation infrastructure large-scale investment in social infrastructure (schools, universities, hospitals, etc. ) Age of mass consumption the industrial base dominates the economy; the primary sector is of greatly diminished weight in economy & society widespread and normative consumption of high-value consumer goods (e. g.  automobiles) consumers ty pically (if not universally), have disposable income, beyond all basic needs, for additional goods Rostow's theory is limited in many ways it is considered too generalised and only applicable to western countries.It works on the assumption that funds are effectively put into investment projects. If financial institutions are not effective this will not take place. From this failure the next assumption will not occur. The government should develop an infrastructure, to develop roads, ports, hospital and schools, if this does not occur take-off will not take place.  (Rostow, 1960).The model de-emphasizes differences between sectors in capitalistic vs. communistic societies, but seems to innately recognize that modernization can be achieved in different ways in different types of economies. There are certain similarities between Rostow's stages of growth analysis and the Marxian analysis of the historical evolution of an economy. They are both audacious attempts to interpret how whol e societies evolve from primarily an economic perspective.Both accept the reality of group and class interests in the political and social process, linked to interests of economic advantage and both accept the fact that economic change has social, political and cultural consequences. In terms of economic technique, both are based on sectoral analysis of growth process, although Marx confined himself to consumption goods and capital goods sectors, while the stages of growth are rooted in a more disaggregated analysis of leading sectors which flows from a dynamic theory of production. Both the theories would pose, in the end, the goal of true affluence for human society.From other view points, however, there are fundamental differences. The most fundamental difference between the two analyses relates to the view taken regarding human motivation. Marx interpreted human behaviour only in economic terms. According to Marx profit-maximisation is the only dominant motive of man in his econ omic activities. Rostow's stages of growth analysis are no doubt an economic way of looking at whole societies, yet they do not ignore the non-economic influences. Man is viewed as a complex unit and therefore subject to a number of social, political, cultural and emotional influences (Rostow, 1960).Marx considers the behaviour of societies as determined by economic considerations. Rostow's analysis does not accept that view. In Rostow's (1960) view, cultural, social and political forces also influence the performance of societies. Even economic performance is conditioned by the above forces. A contrast between Rostow's analysis of post-traditional and Marx's post-feudal phase—capitalism—is also worth noting. Marx held that the decisions of capitalist societies are made simply in terms of the free-market mechanism and private advantage. Marxian analysis fails to explain the emergence of a welfare state.However, Rostow's analysis of the breakdown of traditional societie s is based on convergence of motives of private profit in the modern sectors with a new sense of affronted nation ­hood (Rostow, 1960). According to Marxian analysis, history moves forward by the clash of conflicting interests and outlooks. According to Rostow, however, â€Å"the outcome of conflict in a regularly growing society is likely to be governed by ultimate consideration of communal continuity. † Marx's analysis of history was based only on the experience of British take-off and drive to maturity.At that time, no other country had reached the take-off stage. By generalizing the British case Marx missed the variety of experience in the evolution of different societies. This makes the Marxian historical sequence unduly rigid and artificial. According to G. M. Meier, Rostow's analysis can claim to be a superior alternative to the Marxian sequence. Rostows stage theory helps us â€Å"to isolate the strategic factors that constitute the necessary and sufficient conditi ons for determining the transition of an economy from a preceding, stage to a succeeding stage.†Cairncross holds that, â€Å"Rostow, like, Marx, adopts a stage approach to history. But he has failed to show how the major variables in social and economic developments operate in different situations. Cairncross says, Rostow is perhaps too anxious like Marx to dramatize history not merely to make it dramatic and give it meaning but to reduce it to a set pattern, to compare the texture of events into too narrow a framework of logic,†An approach to history in these terms may make good drama or supply the element of myth required for a popular manifesto; but it  does not make good theory or, for that matter, good history. † Again in the opinion of Cairncross, one of the greatest weaknesses of stage approach to history is that it provokes but it cannot answer the question what comes next. The engine of growth in the Marxist system is assumed to break down completely wh en capitalism fulfils its destiny; Marx has nothing to say about the laws of motion of a post-capitalist society. In Rostow's exposition, the last but presumably no' the final stage is an era of high mass consumption.Although he brood on what lies beyond affluence he cannot tells us what stages have yet to come? Vaclav Holesovsky holds that Marx's classification of history is-only an approximation to the reality and the measuring rod is a single variable—the varying form in which the surplus is appropriated from the producers. This is not the case with Rostow. He has adopted a symptomatic approach and describes features of a society at various stages of development.